1. INDIA: A STATE FOREST DEPARTMENT'S REORIENTATION

Over the last decade, forest management in India has evolved from a centralized state-controlled system towards a new forest policy called the Joint Forest Management (JFM). JFM centers on developing a partnership between the forest departments and local communities to protect and manage the forests. The different levels of a progressive, process-oriented approach to JFM include range profiling, boundary demarcation, and micro-planning, done in a very participatory manner. Outputs from each level establishes JFM planning and management capability.

Orissa is one of the leading states in India that adheres to the concept of JFM. Mayurbanj District, which consists of the Baripada and Karanjia Divisions, is the northernmost district of Orissa with a total area of 10,418 sq. km. and had 39% forest cover as of 1989. The presence of the Similipal National Park and the 80% of the area classified as reserve, keeps the forest in relatively good health. From the 1950s to the 1970s, forests outside the Similipal National Park were heavily logged, causing the emergence of grassroots forest protection movements in Mayurbanj to respond to growing community concerns over environmental degradation and increasing scarcity of forest products. A government resolution in 1988 formally authorized the formation of the Village Forest Protection Committees (VFPCs) allowing the Orissa Forest Department (OFD) to formally endorse local efforts. With over 1,000 forest protection committees, Mayurbanj District is one of the most active regions in India (and perhaps in the world) in terms of community participation in forest management. Community management of forests needs both strong and capable Village-Level Organizations (VLOs) as well as a flexible and responsive OFD working together under a trusting atmosphere. As partners working together to formulate and implement action plans jointly, the VLOs need empowering and the OFD needs to develop the capacity to respond to empowered VLOs. However, under the new set-up, JFM implementation faces various constraints in the field as experienced by both the OFD staff and the VLOs themselves.

In April 1998, a team from AFN together with the OFD, NGOs, and VLOs in Mayurbanj District, assessed the JFM issues (also see AFNews Volume IV No. 2 "Key Policy Implementation Issues Common to Many Countries in the Region).

PERSPECTIVES REGARDING THE IMPLEMENTATION CONSTRAINTS OF JFM COMMUNITY PERSPECTIVE SECURITY OF NTFP AND FUELWOOD: Not all FPCs have formal authority to protect a forest against exploitative neighboring villages. - FD needs to recognize the local policies of committees and support them when they fine offenders - FD needs to demarcate protected forests - FD and NGOs should recognize new FPCs in forest-dependent communities and facilitate regular meetings between neighboring villages - Village funds should be generated to cover the costs of VFPC operations and FD visits PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN: Women feel incapable of stopping people, and even foresters, from taking the trees they protect. - Women FPC members should be given more concrete symbols of authority - More female field staff should be hired and trained to organize other women FPC members - Special meetings for women FPC members should be held so they can be more involved in forest protection activities PROFITABILITY OF NTFP: NTFPs lack profitability since VLOs are not yet able to access major markets and secure fair trade. Processing, packaging, and marketing is poor and there is not enough diversification. - New action research should be conducted on NTFP programs - VLOs will enhance production by establishing nurseries and planting desirable species in the forest RELATIONSHIP WITH FD: The relationship between the FD and communities is strained due to the frequent rotation of FD officers. There is also a lack of support given by the FD to VFPCs in apprehending offenders, and a lack of efficient communication between the FD and VFPCs. - Extend the rotation periods for officers working with VLO groups - Proper turnover should be conducted through meetings with the affected communities for each rotation period - Field staff should be trained in methods that support JFM programs - Regular meetings, at least monthly, between VLOs and FD officials should occur for better interaction LEGALIZATION OF VFPCs: It is not clear whether a VFPC should become a duly recognized VSS or not. VSS funds are not used and stay in banks for uncertain reasons. - The community should hold records of the VSS - Another process for choosing top positions in the VSS should be found and should not be automatically allocated to the FD FD PERSPECTIVE FD STAFF ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR: There are too few FD officers to support the committees and a lack of those trained for JFM. Rotation of staff disrupts the continuity of relations between the OFD and FPCs. - The social forestry wing should be divided into territorial working groups so tasks can be shared with coordinating NGOs - Allow longer terms of staff and initiate better transitions between new staff - Create incentives and merit awards for work on JFM programs FOREST DEPARTMENT REORGANIZATION: The process of incorporating forestry staff into the JFM support strategy is unclear, and the monitoring of Social Forestry plantation stocks is inadequate. - SF field staff should be well selected and trained for incorporation into JFM support work - An inventory of plantation stocks and a map of the sites should be produced Communities lack a sense of ownership of the plantation because FD holds the account books and not a member of the VLO. Also, confusing harvesting rights under the SF program and the encouragement of illegal harvesting by companies worsens the situation. - VFCs should be trained in secretarial functions to take over the account books - Plantations should be thinned and benefits from these activities should be returned to the VFCs - FD should develop approved and supervised guidelines for thinning of plantations - FD should discuss with suspect companies to see if their needs can be met legally SUPPORT ROLES OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT IN JFM: The organized smuggling operations in the buffer zones of national parks is a problem, and several communities can be involved. There is uncertainty of rights and responsibilities in times of patrolling and in the use of resources in the buffer zone. - Sustainable harvesting could be allowed as an incentive for villages and communities who cooperate in the control of smuggling operations in the buffer zone - More employment opportunities and eco-development programs should be created in the buffer zone - FD should work with NGOs to establish VFPCs/VSSs in buffer zones Inter-village tensions exist due to confusion over rights and responsibilities, and no guidelines are available to provide procedures for the demarcation of operations or map preparation. - Field staff should be trained in conflict mediation techniques - Guidelines for FPC boundary demarcation and map preparation should be developed FOREST DEPARTMENT RELATIONSHIPS WITH FPCs, VLOs, AND NGOs: There is a lack of coordination between FD and NGOs. There is a need to encourage good relations. - The FD should implement strategies that inculcate a positive attitude among field staff towards community-based forest protection - Incentives should be provided for staff who work effectively with FPCs, federations, and support NGOs - A divisional working group should be established to coordinate between OFD, NGO, and VLO federations CONFLICTS IN POLICY AND LAW: Villagers don't want the organization's leadership to be given to those outside their community as stated by the 1993 resolution which formalizes committees. Conflicting perceptions of management objectives between FD and FPCs exist. Formal organizations (VSSs) need to be in continuity with the earlier informal local committees. - The 1993 resolution should be modified with changes recommended by a panel of senior officers, NGO, and FPC leaders - The FD, FPCs, and NGOs should establish a clearer consensus regarding forest management goals; and a new resolution reflecting the different objectives of FPCs needs to be drafted Foresters already have a heavy workload and cannot effectively execute extra responsibilities of VSS functions. FD field staff often only support VSSs while ignoring effective VFPCs. - All communities engaged in forest protection should receive equal support and attention from the OFD - All villages with FPCs and that are participating in JFM activities should be located on a map to allow for a comprehensive spatial inventory

Through AFN assistance, cluster mapping is being developed with the Orissa Forest Department as a participatory tool to build forest officer capabilities. The forest officer is trained to take a standard forestry map and, through discussions with the villagers, add layers of information on plastic overlays. Initially, clarity is sought on administrative boundaries, forest conditions, and the location of forest protection groups. The villagers and officers the choose symbols indicating their management issues. The final stage of the mapping is to develop a JFM action plan. The action plan consists of identifying management areas (black boundaries) and then locating where its 10 implementation steps are carried out. Steps 1-4 are those needed to demarcate the Forest Protection Committee's boundaries. Steps 5-10 are those needed to develop a microplan.

2. THAILAND-PHILIPPINES EXCHANGE OF LEARNINGS AND EXPERIENCES

When it comes to resource management, no one country has all the answers. In the Philippines, it is clear that the learning opportunity offered is the legal framework and the various tenure instruments that are all part of a national strategy to support community management. A visit to Thailand earlier this year revealed movements in the direction of devolution of responsibility to the local village council (OBT) and in the systematic documentation of indigenous management systems. In response, AFN supported a group of Thais representing government agency, NGOs, and the Regional Training Centre in Community Forestry (RECOFTC) to visit the Philippines in June. The cultural and policy context of each country is different. However, the insights gained from learning about the struggle within the Philippines and exchanging ideas with colleagues strengthened motivation and provided new ideas.

The group went first to Nueva Vizcaya province to find out about their process of devolving resource management responsibilities to the local government. Governor Agbayani shared his visionary approach that has initiated various projects and activities that have built environmental management capabilities of LGU staff. This has been supported by a project that promotes good governance: GOLD.

The group then went to the province of Nueva Ecija to visit a community of indigenous people, the Dumagat, which has developed an approved Ancestral Domain Management Plan. This plan also obtained resource use rights through the Community-Based Forest Management Program. The mayor has organized multi-sectoral support where each representative commits resources to assist the ADMP implementation through a MOA. The community have produced their own zoned management plan through community mapping on plastic, paper, and 3-dimensional models. Their process has far-reaching consequences for involving communities in developing zoned management maps for other programs such as protected areas.

The group then returned to Manila and had a meeting with the Philippine Working Group (PWG) whose members are drawn from donor agencies, the central DENR, and other NGOs. They are committed to attending site visits and meetings but without institutional representation which allows for free-flowing discussions and sharing. A meeting with purely NGO representatives then took place so the Thais could gain a balanced understanding of the development of the various pro-people programs in the Philippines. The following learnings were identified during the visit:

SUMMARY OF LEARNINGS FROM THE EXCHANGE

Devolution is a process and small successes are needed that will lead to building greater trust in capability. Good governance requires the devolution of power to the people, and the transparency and accountability of LGUs. New skills are needed for LGU staff so that they can effectively draw out and listen to the ideas from the people.

Once areas have been devolved and a MOA is signed between the LGU and DENR, the LGU can write its own co-management agreements (Sub-MOA) with communities which have the flexibility to respond to local needs. Communities are able to set their own management zones, rules, and policies, and implement their own decision. Implementation of ADMP can be supported through the LGU and multi-sectoral agencies with a MOA where they tap and commit local resources.

Devolution does not include corresponding budgets, and this has forced local line agencies and LGUs to use the resources they have more effectively. The decentralization of decision-making responsibility is important in government agencies in order to support devolution of resource management responsibilities to the LGU.

Policy development has gone beyond pilot sites to programs and this has a much broader impact. CBFM is the result of a national policy shift that was pro-people, starting from a new constitution.

Government programs are only just beginning to meet the special needs of upland people. They started from small area advancements with NGOs and others, often pushing for opportunity, and government often looking for the opportunity to respond.

Government commitment to people-focused policies is mixed as there is less money available in terms of budget allocation to support their implementation.

The PWG first listens to the smallest group in an area and then to others along the line. It listens and awaits response. This has resulted in changes in all of the sites visited. People placed in a new situation are able to take a new position where they find they have a new perspective on the problem. Trust and commitment are key characteristics.

Contract reforestation failed badly. It did not instill a sense of ownership and responsibility for the resources. Project activities were too dependent upon the availability of cash. Resettlement efforts have not worked because they require large budgets, and some communities have a social attachment to their area that cannot be compensated for with cash. CBFM legitimizes and empowers the de-facto managers - the resident communities - to assist in resource management.

Mining and global business is the biggest threat to communities and the remaining forest resources.

THAI IMPRESSIONS

The Philippines shares similar difficulties in national resource conservation and protection. We started 30 to 40 years ago with a 50% forest cover. Now it is down to 25%. Different levels of government have alternative programs to address the problems.

We were impressed with the rural and local organizations of governance. Local government, what is it? The governor of Nueva Vizcaya was able to tell us that good governance is where people have the right to explain what they need and participate in the process through proper consultation. The municipal and barangay levels can be involved in management. This type of thinking and process can be of benefit to us. The solutions in the Philippines are tenurial.

With our new constitution, the people have the right and duty to look after the forest and its resources, but in reality we are still looking for a process and activities to facilitate this.

There is an absence of "deep green" NGOs which results in less conflict. All NGOs seem to acknowledge the need for people to actively participate in the management of the environment. Advocacy efforts seem to be more successful.

The tambon council (village level) must maintain the environment in the tambon. There are sometimes misunderstandings. If the area belongs to the Royal Forestry Department, there can be an overlap of responsibilities. We have not yet clarified this.

QUESTIONS THE DUMAGAT LEADER PUT TO THE THAIS

Are there any programs in Thailand for tribal communities?

Thailand has a policy of integrating tribal communities into the mainstream of society.

In the Philippines, we have found that lowlanders and uplanders live in different ways and have their own special needs. How can you integrate them with the lowlanders and meet their needs?

The King has programs for the tribal people but there are still difficulties with the results from various efforts. Programs have been going on for 40 years trying to assist the tribal people.

After 40 years what main learnings does the Thai government have in terms of what has worked?

We have learned many things that have not worked. For instance, cabbages or other high-value cash crops have been encouraged instead of opium poppies that were abused by others and used for narcotics. These in turn have caused other environmental problems in the watershed. The tribal people that planted the poppies before used them for health. It was the lowlanders that caused difficulties. Now, others also blame these communities for destroying the watersheds because of the chemicals used on their high-value crops. The government is still in the process of finding ways to meet the needs of the tribal people.

3. VOICES FROM THE FOREST: PHILIPPINES - SITIO PAWAK, BARANGAY MASOC, BAROBBOB WATERSHED

In December 1997, a MOA between the provincial government and residents of the area was formalized. The community was asked to share their history so their situation could be understood.

In 1957, there were seven Ifugao families. Then Ilocano migrants arrived. Migration from other areas increased further when the logging road to Ambaguio opened up. Many of the residents were involved in logging activities as well as insurgency during martial law. Originally, the people were opening small farm lots in the forest where they would plant upland rice, vegetables, corn, and gabi. This supplemented their selling of forest products such as timber and rattan. They also sold charcoal. Narra was still abundant at this time.

In 1990, the people shifted to backyard gardening. There were no more trees to cut. The residents started selling land to others so they could meet basic needs. Now there are about 140 people. The forest resources are very depleted and they can no longer find deer or monkeys. Before, no one bothered to control fire, but now that they know they have tenure and that the government will help them, they have already fought four fires this year. The area has become much warmer and not the river has very little water flowing in it, especially in the dry season. They want to increase the forest resources.

The community is in a critical watershed, a protected area under Philippine law, as this is where the town's water source is, and it supplies water to those down the valley. The DENR could not remove the people, and they would not stop them from opening up new areas for farming. This was often the cause of uncontrolled fires. One of the residents had been promised by President Magsaysay in the 1950s that they would get tenure for their land. It is only now, with tenure assured through the MOA, that the people are willing to cooperate with government. As part of the MOA, the Provincial Government has asked them to contain their farming to a specified area, assist in preventing and fighting fires, as well as participate in rehabilitation activities. The community has assured tenure for 25 years.

CHALLENGES TO GOOD GOVERNANCE AT THE LOCAL LEVEL Environmental Management has often been defined in terms of reforestation and other inputs. Local Government Units have tended to see infrastructure as a priority. The environment is often perceived as a cost center with little political impact. The Provincial staff were reserved because of these perceived costs. However, once consultation processes with the community started, they were able to see that people have other priorities, several of which are related to environmental management. In response, the priorities of the Provincial Government and LGU also shifted, and environmental management has now become a priority. Protected Areas and People. A strong sense of reality is needed in these areas in terms of acknowledging the ownership and responsibility of the people that are already in the area. Communities are being involved and ways are being found to give them tenure security. Central government established these areas only on the basis of geological and ecological factors, and ignored the communities. This causes local problems and leads to degradation of resource. The Provincial Government wants to bring about a real sense of community ownership in these areas, one that is not dependent upon how long the funds last. Participation of the People in local governance is included in the law but in practice, this has not always occurred. Facilitation skills have to be developed. The Provincial Government is asking people to think hard through group workshops in the barangays. This provides an opportunity for the Government to listen to the people, to their ideas, and to draw from them what is best for the area.